SportsFans Essay Example For Students

SportsFans Essay Psycologists often look to find patterns of behavior among similar people in similar circumstances. One such study is that of the psycological effect of sports teams and their fans. In a study at Murry State University, Daniel L. Wann and Thomas J. Dolan tried to prove that fans that had a high association with their favorite team would be biassed in their evaluation of the past, preasent, and future preformances. Wann and Thomas study set out to prove that students at Murry State that had a high assosiation with their basketball team, when asked about their records in previous seasons would estimate more than actually were won. Also, if the students were asked about their predictions for the team in the present year, they would be a lot higher than they probably could acheive. Finally they would have them make predictions of their preformances of the future, and see if there was any pattern among those people. To accomplish this, Wann and Dolan used 106 sublects. Fourty four were ma le and sixty two were female, student volunteers, whom took part in the study for extra credit. At the time of this test the Murry State basketball team was first in their conference with a 4-1 record. The study consisted of a packet with many different questions in it that would help rate the people. The first page rated the persons identifiability with the team. It consisted of seven questions, each with a rating of 1 8 in association. The final two pages of the packet were the subjects assesment of the team. The subjects were asked questions like:how many games had the team won the previous year(The answer was 17); How many wins will they have this season (the answer to that ended up being 18); and how many wins do you see for the next season. The subjects then answered four self ratings on what they beleived was a) poor and outstanding, b) preforming well above or below expectations, c) bad or good teams, and d)teams with little or great ability. The students then were asked ho w they beleive the current team would end the season (ie. NCAA Champ., Conf. Winner, etc.), and asked to rate these possibilities. Wann and Dolan found that their Hypothesis was right and that sports fans that had a higher affiliation with the team, were more likely to padd the records of the team. They found that students tended to think the team fared better in previous seasons, and their predictions for the preasent and future were extremely overblown. In an article later Wann follows that their evaluation not only was true for teams with winning programs, but also with teams that have losing records also. Wann preformed this study to contradict a report by Hirt and Rials that differed in oppinion from his original study and said it was a biassed evaluation. IN his second study, Wann found that the same effect was true for dedicated fans of a losing team. They tended to do the same as the other fans did. Psycologists love to study the effects of certain things on people. not many have looked at the effect of sports on the fans. Though all people view things different ways, certain types of people, like those spectators with strong affiliation to a sport team, tend to have similar outlooks and bias on their preformance. Works Cited Wann, Daniel L and Thomas J Dolan (1994). Influence of Spectators Identification on Evaluation of the Past,Preasent,and Future Preformance of a Sports Team. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78. 547-552 Wann, Daniel L. (1994). Biased Evaluation of Highly Identified Sports Spectators: A Responce to Hirt and Ryalls. Perceptual and Motor Skill, 79. 105-106. 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African Americans in Science and Their Accomplishments

African Americans in Science and Their Accomplishments African Americans have made significant contributions in various fields of science. Contributions in the field of chemistry include the development of synthetic drugs for the treatment of chronic ailments. In the field of physics, African Americans have helped to invent laser devices for the treatment of cancer patients. In the field of medicine, African Americans have developed treatments for various diseases including leprosy, cancer, and syphilis. African Americans in Science From inventors and surgeons to chemists and zoologists, African Americans have made invaluable contributions to science and humanity. Many of these individuals were able to have great success in the face of bigotry and racism. Some of these notable scientists include: Otis BoykinDOB: (1920 - 1982)Major Accomplishments: Otis Boykin invented 28 electronic devices including the control unit for the heart pacemaker. He patented a wire precision resistor that was cost effective to manufacture and improved function in electronic devices such as transistor radios, missile systems, televisions, and IBM computers. Other inventions of Boykin include a burglar-proof cash register, an electrical resistance capacitor, and a chemical air filter. Dr. Ben CarsonDOB: (1950 - )Major Accomplishments: This Johns Hopkins pediatric neurosurgeon and professor led a medical team that became the first to separate Siamese twins successfully. Dr. Ben Carson was also the first to perform an interuterine procedure for the treatment of a hydrocephalic twin. He also performed a hemispherectomy (removal of half of the brain) in an infant to stop severe epileptic seizures. Emmett W. ChappelleDOB: (1925 - )Major Accomplishments: This biochemist worked for NASA and discovered a method for detecting bacteria in water, food, and body fluids through studies of bioluminescence. Emmett Chappelles studies in luminescence have also produced methods for using satellites for monitoring crops. Dr. Charles DrewDOB: (1904 -1950)Major Accomplishments: Best known for his work with blood plasma, Charles Drew helped set up the American Red Cross blood bank. He also established the first blood bank in England and developed standards for collecting blood and processing blood plasma. Additionally, Dr. Drew developed the first mobile blood donation centers. Dr. Lloyd HallDOB: (1894 - 1971)Major Accomplishments: His work in food sterilization and preservation improved processes in food packing and preparation. Dr. Lloyd Halls sterilization techniques have been adapted for use in the sterilization of medical equipment, spices, and pharmaceuticals. Dr. Percy JulianDOB: (1899 - 1975)Major Accomplishments: This research chemist is known for developing synthetic steroids for use in the treatment of arthritis and other inflammatory diseases. Dr. Percy Julian also developed a process for creating a soy protein foam that was used to extinguish fires on aircraft carriers. Dr. Charles Henry TurnerDOB: (1867-1923)Major Accomplishments: This zoologist and behavioral scientist is known for his work with insects. Turners studies with honey bees demonstrated that they can distinguish colors. Dr. Charles Henry Turner was also the first to demonstrate that insects can hear sounds. Dr. Daniel Hale WilliamsDOB: (1856-1931)Major Accomplishments: Dr. Daniel Williams founded the Provident Hospital in Chicago. In 1893, he performed the first successful open heart surgery. He is also the first African American surgeon to perform surgery on the pericardium of the heart to repair a wound. Other African American Scientists and Inventors The following table includes more information on African American scientists and inventors. African American Scientists and Inventors Scientist Invention Bessie Blount Developed a device to help disabled persons eat Phil Brooks Developed the disposable syringe Michael Croslin Developed the computerized blood pressure machine Dewey Sanderson Invented the urinalysis machine

Training on Local Employees in Asian Hospitality Industry Research Paper

Training on Local Employees in Asian Hospitality Industry - Research Paper Example One primary understanding that needs to be explored in this proposed research study is the difference between European leadership and Asian employees at the cultural level. European human resources managers generally hail from cultures that are globalized and have a long-standing industrialized and commercial history. Much of this influence has come from Western countries, such as the United States, that acted as the framework for much of the modern human resources principles being used in a variety of industries today. European leaders are from individualistic societies, under Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Framework, whereby managers and employees value self-expression and independence in the workplace and tend to value personal goal attainment over that of group goal-setting and group-oriented rewards (Blodgett, Bakir & Rose, 2008). In this type of organization or culture, individualists seek more decision-making authority and job role autonomy in order to remain loyal and satisfied so that they can become performance-oriented and seek to meet strategic goals. This individualistic attitude drives the majority of their human resources policies as it relates to employee training and learning. In Asian cultures, however, there is a strong, historical trend toward collectivism. This type of cultural values group norms and group affiliation over individualized expression where â€Å"they view themselves as a member of an extended family, place group interests ahead of individual needs, and value reciprocation of favors and respect for tradition† (Blodgett et al, p.339). Employees that have strong collectivist values often seek opinion and networking from peers and operate well in very structured, centralized management hierarchies. Collectivists often value rules and regulations and seek ongoing leadership presence in their job roles and do not function most effectively when left to autonomous job functions.

Electric cars vs hybrid cars Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Electric cars vs hybrid cars - Research Paper Example This paper analyses the advantages and disadvantages of electric and hybrid cars as a move to reduce the rate at which CO2 is emitted in the atmosphere, and explains the reasons as to why hybrid cars are preferable than electric cars. First, what is an electric car? An electric car is powered or propelled by an electric motor that is powered by a rechargeable battery pack. These batteries can be recharged by household electricity. These cars do not use gasoline, instead they get their power from a controller which regulates the amount of power based on the acceleration rate (â€Å"Electric Cars a definitive guide†, n.d). Electric cars are environmentally friendly because they emit less or do not emit carbons than their counterparts that use gasoline but they do use rare metals that are used in manufacturing their batteries. This means zero emission of carbons to the environment; they do not contribute to climate change like those vehicles that use gasoline. In addition, electric cars do not use fossil fuels; they do not have internal combustion engines because they completely depend on rechargeable batteries. Furthermore, when the engine of an electric car is on, there is no noise as compared to gas-powered vehicle thus giving people a quiet ride. Further, the silent nature of electric cars makes them not associated with the issue of noise pollution (â€Å"Advantages and disadvantages of electric cars†, n.d). Another, advantage of electric cars is that they reduce air pollution since they do not emit pollutants. Furthermore, they have reduced green house gas emissions from the onboard source of energy depending on the technology and fuel used for generation of electricity to charge the batteries is clean (â€Å"Electric cars a look into the future†, n.d). In addition, there advantages of electric cars is that they have high energy efficient level since electric motors have the capability to convert 75% of the chemical energy from the

Questioning the Text Papers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Questioning the Text Papers - Essay Example All the three tales interacts to form a coherent picture of the predicaments that the characters face and the possible solutions to the problems. The paper presents a question from the text and discusses it comprehensively with illustrations. Considering the nature of the relationship between characters in the three tales, examine whether the existence of racial ties and commonalities can influence the disposition of an individual toward another person of the same race? Explain the impact of the behavior displayed by characters from similar backgrounds on the efforts to discourage racial discrimination and stereotypes? The text possesses themes of stereotypes and racial prejudice especially towards the Chinese people. It presents several examples that emphasize the idea that the author addresses some of the major problems faced by various victims of racial discrimination. The question emerges from the observations that individual characters who hail from the same ethnic groups, mistreat their fellow counterparts. Instead of providing support for them to thrive and adapt to the harsh systems, they shun them away, and this worsens their situations. There are many scenarios that support the basis of the questions. The relationship between Wei-Chen and Jin is a typical example that illustrates this fact. Another example is the event that transpires between Wong Lai-Tsao and Tze-Yo-Tzuh that was full of betrayal. In brief, the question originates from the negative treatment displayed by various characters to individuals from the same race. The query is significant as it highlights the weaknesses existing in the society between victims of racial prejudice and stereotyping. Research indicates that most individuals in alien countries face discriminations or mistreatment from fellow tribesmen and members of the same race (Shabazz 1238). As minority

Uk British Muslim Identity Sociology Essay

Uk British Muslim Identity Sociology Essay The purpose of this essay is to focus on the historical and contemporary construction of British-Muslim identity in U.K. and analyse its perceived relationship with radicalism. The first part of the essay will shed light on the problem of this umbrella term British-Muslim by highlighting the extent to which the religious identity of Muslims in Britain is beyond ethnic and national identities. In addition to this, this section will discuss whether putting a label of British-Muslim identity is legitimate, in terms of structure, meaning and a body of people who subscribe to the label. The next part of the essay examines why and how the British-Muslim identity has come to be associated with radical extremism. This section will include debates of integration and assimilation and discuss why some Muslims in the UK fail to achieve a sense of belonging in Britain and thus consequently turn to radical extremist organisations. In the end pertinent conclusions will be drawn based on the precedi ng arguments. Contemporary estimates suggest that the total population of British Muslims in the UK is approximately 2 million, or around 3.3% of the national population. This population is comprised of people from approximately 56 national backgrounds speaking around 70 languages including groups originating from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, North-Africa, the Middle East, South-East Asia, Iran and more recently Somalia, Iraq, Nigeria and Afghanistan as well as an increasing number of European Muslims including English converts.  [1]  Within these national backgrounds are a host of further ethnic divisions. For example, within the British Pakistani Muslim population there are Kashmiris, Punjabis, Sindhis and Pathans (Dahya, 2004: 77). Even further, many differentiate themselves based on Biraderi or clan, so that within the British Paksitani-Kashmiri Muslim population, there are Chaudaries, Rajputs, Kumars, Mistries and others. Such divisions based on Biraderi can heavily inform day to day rela tionships, marital and business partnerships as well as political allegiances (Shaw, 2000: 137). Within the wider framework of the British Muslim population there are strong denominational differences. There are the more widely known differences between Sunni and Shia Islam and the classical differences between the Hanafi, Shafii, Maliki and Hanbali Sunni schools of law. Then there are relatively recent denominational sects such as the Wahabi, the Deobandi, the Barelwi, the Ahl-e-Hadith as well as various Sufi brands of Islam (Raza 1993). Amongst British Muslims there are newly arrived immigrants, second and third generation immigrants whose parents and grandparents were born in the UK as well as indigenous converts to Islam whose ancestors came to the UK hundreds of years ago. On top of all these wide ranging attributes we must include the full spectrum of practicing and non-practicing Muslims, beginning with the very practicing for whom Islam is a complete way of life that informs every decision he/she makes, and ending with those for whom Islam is a mere relic of an ancient heritage, no longer important in contemporary life. In addition, socio-economic status can play a decisive role in the formation of identity within Muslim communities. Ansari notes that middle and upper-middle class Jordanians, Lebanese, Palestinians and Syrians appear to possess more multiplex relations with each other than with their own working-class compatriots (Ansari, 2004: 3). With all of these multifaceted differences it is clear that the term British-Muslim is one that is extremely complex and any accurate picture of the typical British-Muslim must be absent of colour, ethnicity, nationality, socio-economic status, political or denominational affiliation. However, one may then wonder, that despite such disparate and potentially conflicting sub-identities, how this term British-Muslim he come to be used so commonly among social scientists, academics, policy makers and the mass me dia. The next part of the essay discusses how, to a significant degree, many Muslims in the UK have overcome these internal differences and increasingly represent themselves as a united group of British-Muslims. Over the past few decades there has been heightened awareness and a greater level of self-representation of a British-Muslim identity among all sectors of Muslims in Britain. There are several reasons for this. Firstly, despite the vast array of varying cultures from which Muslims in the UK descend, Islam as a religion has inculcated a high degree of cultural uniformity across all regions in which it has spread. In the Development of Islamic Ritual, nineteen authors explore different aspects of Islamic ritual that are observed and performed through the Islamic world including the ritual performance of prayer 5 times a day, pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca and fasting during the holy month of Ramadan.  [2]  Many Muslims learn Arabic as a common language, share common names, use the same form of greeting and have the same dietary prohibitions. In recent years, the wearing of the Islamic headscarf has been adopted by females from a diverse range of ethnic and national background s as a powerful and expressive form of Muslim identity. In Why the French Dont like Headscarves, Bowen argues that for many Muslim women, the wearing of the Islamic headscarf is a conscious and deliberate display of Muslim identity that promotes social solidarity and community consciousness amongst the Muslim population. Thus, despite wide variances in the way Muslims from different backgrounds dress, there are numerous outward markers of Islamic identity that bind together disparate groups, whether they be in the performance of Islamic rituals or the wearing of Islamic clothing. Secondly, there has been a consistent drive from leaders amongst Muslims in the UK to form organisations representing Muslims at a national and international level. Mandaville (2003) argues that the media plays a key role in the development of British-Muslim identity, catering to second and third generation Muslims in the UK creating a public space in which issues relating to citizenship and belonging can be discussed. In Imagined Communities, Anderson argues that the invention of the printing press and the subsequent production of literature in vernacular languages across different regions of Europe helped to solidify nationalist sentiments by creating a sense of imagined community amongst those of the same linguistic background. Similarly, the growing British-Muslim media industry promotes a greater consciousness of Muslims from different backgrounds within the UK. The satellite TV channels named above cut across cultural, national and ethnic boundaries and serve as a unifying plat form of dialogue, news coverage and religious transmission heightening a sense of imagined community amongst Muslims in the UK.   ADD STUFF FROM MANDAVILLE and CESSARI Thirdly, despite the differences between the range of backgrounds from which Muslims in the UK originate, there are certain common interests which have brought together disparate groups of Muslims to lobby the government at a local and national level. For example, in 1994, Muslims in the UK launched the Halal Food Authority, an organisation to monitor and authenticate the halal meat and poultry trade in the UK, a service pushed for by Muslims from all backgrounds. Several arbitration tribunals, such as the Muslim Arbitration Tribunal, have been set up around to provide Muslims in the UK with legally binding dispute resolution mechanisms based on Islamic Sharia principles on family matters, inheritance and various commercial and debt disputes. During the outbreak of the Iraq War in 2003, much of the frustration felt by Muslims in the UK towards the government was channelled through peaceful protest facilitated by organisations such as the Muslim Council of Britain and Muslims of all b ackgrounds galvanised to speak with a louder and more unified Muslim voice. Such initiatives have required cross-cultural co-operation to achieve common aspirations amongst Muslims in the UK. Furthermore, Muslims in the UK have rallied together to show solidarity against perceived threats towards their community both nationally and worldwide. Samad (1996) and Saeed (1999) view the mobilisation of a British-Muslim identity as a response to the public devaluation and disparagement of Muslims that has lead to increased in-group solidarity. According to Ansari, the publication of the Satanic Verses (1988) and the first Gulf-War (1991) meant Muslims, more than ever, came to be imagined as outsiders, excluded from the essential notions of Britishness which, steeped in nostalgia, continued to be perceived as homogenous, Christian, white and rooted in past centuries (Ansari, 2004: 1). Such feelings of exclusion strengthened during the conflict in Boznia-Herzegovina (1993-1996), the War on Afghanistan (2001 to present), the War on Iraq (2003 to present), the publication of the cartoons depicted the prophet Mohammed (2005), EU immigration, asylum, race and security polices, includi ng the Terrorism Act 2006, which target Europes Muslim communities (Fekete 2009), the continuous demonization of Muslims in the media (Poole 2002, Gottschalk 2007) as well as Islamaphobia on a street level, which have all contributed towards a defensiveness among Muslims in the UK and a sense of common hardship. Ballard (1996) argues that that the increasing self-identification of second and third generation Pakistanis as Muslim is a reaction to their external rejection by the White majority and it is religion rather than ethnicity that takes prominence because it is the Muslim aspect of their identity which they feel is under attack. Thus, the increased ascendency of the Muslim aspect of a highly complex individual identity among some Muslims in the UK can be partly explained as a defensive reaction to perceived external threats. Moreover, Archer (2001) and Hopkins (2006) have argued that the transcendence of a British-Muslim identity above an ethnic or national based identity among young Muslims in the UK can be partly explained through an analysis of gender stereotypes and the performance of masculinity and femininity. Archer (2001) argues that young men construct a strong Muslim identity to counteract stereotypes of a weaker passive Pakistani or Bangladeshi identity and that talk of violence, action and hardness through religious idealism and martyrdom, drawing inspiration from ancient tales of Islamic conquest and bravery, can be seen as evoking a particular form of Muslim masculinity. Further, Archer argues that Islam provides a channel, whether scripturally legitimate or not, for men to discuss and define female behaviours as un-Islamic and thus an Islamic identity is expedient for the control and domination of women. Conversely, Akram-Nadwi demonstrates in Al-Muhaddithat: The Women Scholars in Islam, t hat Islam has for many generations, provided an avenue for female empowerment as an escape from the culture-bound patriarchy.  [3]  In Women and Islam: Images and Realities, Moghissi (ed.) expound upon the highly complex multifaceted realities of Islam, gender and female empowerment, revealing how both women and men selectively appropriate elements of Islamic doctrine in order to maximise their own empowerment within the scope of their circumstances. The politics of gender has made at least some contribution to the ascendency of a Muslim identity above ethnic or national identity for the UKs Muslim population. Finally, Muslim identity is used as an act of empowerment and to promote sense of belonging to an international body of people. Glynns study of Bengali Muslims in London (2002) shows that Islam provides young Muslims a positive alternative to the drug-culture to which they are exposed to within inner-cities. He writes the growing polarity between the drug culture and Islam is often remarked on. Islamic brotherhood is a potent antidote to alienationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Islam is something to be proud of, with a great history and international presence as well as religious promises of future glory, which can all transport its followers from the grey confines of the inner city (Glynn, 2002: 975). Through Islam, many Muslims obtain a sense of purpose, direction, history and belonging to a community broader than the narrowly restricted confines of their own neighbourhoods. Islam has also been used as a tool for empowerment within the family context. Macey (1999) suggests that Islamic prohibitio n on forced marriage is used by young Pakistanis in the UK to challenge parental pressures. Further, Islam is used to justify inter-racial marital relationships and to challenge the emphasis placed on colour, caste and ethnicity found in many cultural practices. Through Islam, many young Muslims in the UK find internal empowerment and tools to challenge parents and communities. For all of these reasons, a British-Muslim identity has emerged to unite disparate groups of people from a wide range of ethnic and national backgrounds. That there are Muslims in the UK is a fact, but the idea of a strong British-Muslim identity has only relatively recently come in to fruition and begun to assert itself. However, while many Muslims in the UK increasingly subscribe to this identity, it is not yet clear what it means to be a British-Muslim. We are now entering into the period in which the definitional boundaries of the British-Muslim identity are being constructed. In this period, competing fo rces, both internal and external to the British Muslim population, are actively contesting the details of the identity, pushing forward varying images of what a British-Muslim is supposed to be. A key arena in which this contest is taking place is in relation to radical extremism.    In light of these discussions, the next part of the essay will focus on radical extremism and the British-Muslim identity. In the aftermath of the 9/11 terror attacks in New York and the 7/7 bombing in London, much work has gone in to identifying the root causes of how a Muslim, born and raised in the UK, could be brought to take his own life and the lives of others with the sole aim of creating maximum devastation within his home country. Rather than limiting research to the exploration of the potential psychopathic tendencies of those individuals responsible for the terror atrocities, much research has suggested that the terror attacks were symptoms of deep rooted nation-wide problems with British-Muslim identity as a whole. It is alleged that such problems are responsible for the creation of radical extremist mentalities, broadly regarded as mentalities that foster violent hostility towards aspects of the British state. It is within this context that efforts by the UK Government t o prevent violent extremism operate. In order to better understand this context, it is necessary to explore how the perceived problems with British-Muslim identity have come to be associated with radical extremism. In Radical Islam Rising: Muslim Extremism in the West, Wiktorowicz provides a detailed study of Al-Muhajiroun, a UK based organisation aspiring towards the re-establishment of an Islamic Caliphate through both non-violent and violent means.  [4]  Al-Muhajiroun are a banned organisations in the UK under the Terrorism Act 2006 for glorification of terrorism. Wiktorowicz argues that Muslims in the UK who join this group are initially inspired by a cognitive opening which provides individuals with a willingness to expose them to the ethos of the organisation. This cognitive opening takes the form of an internal identity crisis that causes the individual to question what it means to be a Muslim in a non-Muslim society. Wiktorowicz suggests that one of the key triggers to this type of identity crisis is an individuals perception that Muslims are not accepted by British society. It would follow therefore that perceptions of discrimination would precipitate feelings of not belonging to B ritish society and leave an individual vulnerable to the message and ideology of organisations such as Al-Muhajiroun. Maxwells study of the 2003 Home Office Citizenship Survey revealed that according to the survey, there was no significant relationship between an individuals socio-economic well being and their perceptions of being discriminated against on the whole. However, the analysis showed that young university students were more likely than others to perceive that they were being discriminated against, despite being socially and economically better off than those who either could not afford or were otherwise unable to attend university. Wiktorowicz writes the experience of both racial and religious discrimination has prompted some young Muslims to think about their identity and how they fit into British society. This is particularly true of young university students who suffer from a sense of blocked social mobility (Wiktorowicz, 2005 :56).   According to this theory, it is frustration at being unable to accomplish what the individual perceives as being rightfully theirs that results in a heightened sense of alienation. This alienation provides some individuals with the cognitive opening necessary for joining organisations such as Al-Muhajiroun. An alternative theory suggests that young university students are more likely to perceive greater levels of discrimination due to knowledge acquired within the university environment. Taji-Fourakis work on Hizb-at-Tahrir (1996), another organisation aiming towards the establishment of an Islamic caliphate, suggests that the main appeal of Hizb-at-Tahrir for young university students is the organisations intellectual sophistication. University environments provide young Muslims the tools to research and debate issues relating to injustices of European colonisation and the partitions of the current Islamic world, giving some individuals the impetus to question their own place within the wider framework of interna tional political identities. Fouraki suggests that Hizb-at-Tahrir are able to capitalise on such thought processes and provide an avenue for such individuals to channel their grievances in a way that provides them with an opportunity to be a part of the supposed re-assertion of superiority of the Islamic world. According to these analyses, issues of identity play in to some individuals feelings of inferiority and rejection by the dominant host society. Such feelings provoke hostility, particularly among young highly educated Muslims, and lead to individuals wanting to become part of a greater force capable of retaliation towards the UK Government and institutions.  Ã‚   Herriots (2007) work on social identity theory suggests that people join groups and internalise the groups identity for two main reasons. The first reason is to fulfil the human need for self-esteem. Herriot suggests that many of those attracted to organisations such as Al-Muhajiroun and Hizb-at-Tahrir are those potentially lacking in a sense of dignity, acceptance or approval from the wider society. As such, some individuals substitute a divine power in place of society as the source of their self-esteem, finding dignity and validation in the performance of that which is understood to be gods will. The second reason is to fulfil the human need for certainty. Again, such organisations provide members with defined beliefs, values and norms, with the weight and authority of ancient and sacred texts that provide clear guidelines on what should and should not be done. Further, Herriot argues that the process of internalising a groups identity leads to the loss of an individual sense of s elf in favour of acting in accordance with the definition of identity provided by the category to which they belong. He writes individuals then behave as group members. Their actions are those of, for example, a radical Muslim or a born-again Christian. They are no longer those of Mohammed Atta or Howard Ahmanson as unique individuals with personal identities, but rather those same persons as members of categories to which they perceive themselves to belong (Herriot, 2007: 30). The individual is then less concerned about the elevation of the ego and more concerned about the advancement of the organisation as a whole. From this perspective, it is perhaps easier to understand why the actions of some members belonging to such organisations may seem self-deprecating or counterproductive to the individuals status or security, or even, as was the case with the 7/7 bombers, suicidal. Such explanations of the processes by which individuals join radical extremist organisations attribute blame to problems associated with British-Muslim identity. It is suggested that many Muslims in the UK struggle to find a social identity among the mainstream population in which they feel a sense of dignity, self-esteem and belonging and therefore resort to a competing identity which defines itself in opposition to the mainstream. It is within this context that the UK Governments policy directive towards preventing violent extremism finds justification for direct intervention in to the construction of British-Muslim identity. The rationale of such intervention supposes that violent extremism is caused by deep-rooted issues with the way in which Muslims in the UK conceptualise their belonging to British society. As such, the prevention of violent extremism requires intervention to neutralise such complications and promote a greater sense of belonging to British values, beliefs and p ractices among British Muslims. The manifestation of the UK Governments decision to intervene in the construction of British-Muslim identity is the PVE Fund. Chapter One analysed the construction of a British-Muslim identity, identifying the process by which a hugely diverse range of people from different backgrounds increasingly subscribe to this identity. The perceived problems associated with this identity provided a pretext for government intervention in to the British-Muslim identity through the PVE Fund and related measures to prevent violent extremism

Inhibitory or Excitatory Potential Changes :: Drugs Psychology Psychiatry Medical Essays

Inhibitory or Excitatory Potential Changes Risperidone is a serotonin antagonist which blocks GABA-evoked currents in pyramidal neurons (Feng et al, 2001). Risperidone lengthens action potentials and blocks potassium current in rabbit heart muscle. In human atrial muscle risperidone decreases outward current but has no effect on inward current. It lengthens the repolarization of atrial and ventricular action potentials only at high drug levels. Risperidone reduces the membrane resting potential and prolongs action potential duration. In human heart preparations risperidone, at high drug concentrations, lengthens repolarization of atrial and ventricular myocardium. (Gluais et al, 2004).Risperidone lengthens the QT action potential of rabbit heart. It lengthens the action potential and blocks repolarization potassium flow. (Gluais et al, 2004). To decrease background noise when using a patch electrode a patch of membrane is isolated with a micropipette. This allows current measurement in the pico ampere range. The tube is sealed to the membrane by suction forming a "gigaseal" which refers to the electrical resistance across the membrane. Such techniques were instrumental in finding that ion channels are gated and modulated not only by voltage and external ligands but also by second messengers, regulatory proteins and by phosphorylation. Patch clamp recording can be used with any cell culture. Voltage dependant sodium, calcium, and potassium channels have a huge number of subtypes. Another large category is transmitter-gated channels regulated by nucleotides, intra-cellular sodium, and calcium, and GTP-binding proteins. There are hundreds of channel subtypes regulated by a variety of mechanisms. Activity of ion channels directly or indirectly affects second messenger calcium ionic concentration. Voltage-dependant calcium channels gate the entry of calcium ions and help shape the action potentials. The entry of calcium ions activates kinases, contractile proteins and ion channels. There are voltage-independent calcium channels activated by ligand binding of receptors on the outside of the cell membranes. Both receptor-linked GTP-binding protein and second messengers affect ion channel activity. Modulation of channel activity by applying agonists to the cell culture indicates a second messenger system. Patch clamp electrodes have been used on the calcium transporter channels in organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum and sarcoplasmic reticulum by rupturing the cell, isolating the organelle, and inducing the membranes to form vesicles. To study microbe channels techniques are used to merge several microbes into a giant microbe large enough to attach a patch electrode to (Rudy,B. & Iverson, L, 1991). Viruses contain coding to create ion channels in host membranes.